- THE IMPORTANCE
OF MOTIVATION.
- The key to
leadership success is MOTIVATING OTHERS TO DO THEIR BEST.
- The importance
of satisfaction in the workforce cannot be overstated.
- Losing an
employee can cost over $100,000.
- Motivating
the right people to join and remain with the organization is a key
function of managers.
- People are
motivated by a variety of things.
- An
INTRINSIC REWARD is the good feeling you have when you have done
a good job.
- An
EXTRINSIC REWARD is something given to you by someone else as
recognition for good work and include pay increases, praise, and
promotions.
- MOTIVATION,
the drive to satisfy a need, ultimately comes from WITHIN AN
INDIVIDUAL.
- The purpose of
this chapter is to help you learn how to stimulate people and bring
out that natural drive to do a good job.
- The job of a
manager is to find each workers’ commitment, encourage it, and focus
it on some common goal
- EARLY
MANAGEMENT STUDIES (TAYLOR).
- FREDERICK
TAYLOR is known as the "FATHER OF SCIENTIFIC MANAGEMENT."
- His book
The Principles of Scientific Management was published in 1911.
- TAYLOR’S
GOAL was to INCREASE PRODUCTIVITY by studying the most
efficient ways of doing things and then teaching workers these
methods.
- The way to
improve productivity was to scientifically study the most efficient
way to do things then teach people those methods (SCIENTIFIC
MANAGEMENT.)
- THREE
ELEMENTS of his approach were: TIME, METHODS, and
RULES OF WORK.
-
TIME-MOTION STUDIES break down the tasks needed to do a job and
measure the time needed to do each task.
- Henry L. Gant,
on of Taylor’s followers, developed GANTT CHARTS by which
managers plotted the work of employees a day in advance.
- FRANK AND
LILLIAN GILBRETH used Taylor’s ideas in the PRINCIPLE OF MOTION
ECONOMY—breaking down every job into a series of motions (therbligs)
and then analyzing each motion to make it more efficient.
- SCIENTIFIC
MANAGEMENT viewed people as MACHINES that needed to be
properly programmed.
- There was
little concern for the psychological or human aspects of work.
- Much emphasis
in some companies is still placed on conformity to work rules rather
than on creativity, flexibility, and responsiveness.
- THE HAWTHORNE
STUDIES (MAYO.)
- The
HAWTHORNE STUDIES were conducted by Elton Mayo at the WESTERN
ELECTRIC COMPANY’s Hawthorne plant in Cicero, Illinois.
- Begun in
1927, the studies ended six years later.
- The
PURPOSE of the studies were to DETERMINE THE BEST LIGHTING
for optimum productivity.
- The
PRODUCTIVITY of the experimental group INCREASED compared
to the control group whether the lighting was bright or dim.
- These results
confused the researchers, who had expected productivity to fall as
the lighting was dimmed.
- A second series
of studies were conducted to see if OTHER FACTORS, such as
temperature and humidity, contributed to increased production.
-
PRODUCTIVITY INCREASED during each of the 13 experimental
periods.
- When
conditions were returned to their original status (before the
studies were started), PRODUCTIVITY CONTINUED TO GO UP. Why?
- Mayo
hypothesized that HUMAN or PSYCHOLOGICAL FACTORS caused
the increases:
- The workers
in the test room thought of themselves as a SOCIAL GROUP.
- The workers
were involved in the PLANNING of the experiments.
- The workers
enjoyed the SPECIAL ATMOSPHERE and ADDITIONAL PAY for
the increased productivity.
- The term
HAWTHORNE EFFECT refers to the tendency for people to behave
differently when they know they’re being studied.
- The Hawthorne
studies’ results encouraged researchers TO STUDY HUMAN MOTIVATION
and the MANAGERIAL STYLES that lead to more productivity.
- Mayo’s
findings led to NEW ASSUMPTIONS ABOUT EMPLOYEES.
- MONEY
was found to be a relatively LOW MOTIVATOR.
- MOTIVATION AND
MASLOW’S HIERARCHY OF NEEDS.
- ABRAHAM MASLOW
believed that MOTIVATION ARISES FROM NEED.
- One is
motivated to satisfy unmet needs.
- Satisfied needs
NO LONGER MOTIVATE.
- Maslow placed
needs on a HIERARCHY of importance:
-
PHYSIOLOGICAL NEEDS: Basic survival needs including the need to
drink, eat, and be sheltered from heat and cold.
- SAFETY NEEDS:
The need to feel secure at work and at home.
- SOCIAL NEEDS:
The need to feel loved, accepted, and part of the group.
- ESTEEM NEEDS:
The need for recognition and acknowledgment from others, as well as
self-respect and a sense of status.
-
SELF-ACTUALIZATION NEEDS: The need to develop to your fullest
potential.
- When one need is
satisfied, another, higher-level need emerges to be satisfied.
- A SATISFIED
NEED is no longer a motivator.
- Lower-level
needs, however, can pop up at any time and take attention away from
higher-level needs
.
APPLYING
MASLOW’S THEORY
- The text
relates how Andrew Grove, president of Intel, uses Maslow’s concepts
to motivate employees in his firm.
- Once one
understands the need level of employees, it is easier to design
programs that will trigger self-motivation.
MCGREGOR’S
THEORY X AND THEORY Y
- DOUGLAS
MCGREGOR categories managers by THEIR ATTITUDES which lead to
different managerial styles: THEORY X and THEORY Y.
- THEORY X.
- The
ASSUMPTIONS of Theory X management are:
- The average
person DISLIKES WORK and will avoid it if possible.
- Because of
this dislike, the average person must be FORCED, CONTROLLED,
DIRECTED, OR THREATENED WITH PUNISHMENT TO BE MOTIVATED to put
forth the effort to achieve the organization’s goals.
- The average
worker prefers to be directed, wishes TO AVOID RESPONSIBILITY,
has relatively LITTLE AMBITION, and wants SECURITY.
- Primary
motivators are FEAR and MONEY.
- The
CONSEQUENCE OF SUCH ATTITUDES is a manager who is very "busy."
- Motivation is
more likely to take the form of PUNISHMENT for bad work
rather than REWARD for good work.
- Theory X
managers give workers little responsibility, authority, or
flexibility.
Those
were the assumptions behind Taylor’s scientific management
THEORY Y.
- THEORY Y
makes
entirely different ASSUMPTIONS about people:
- Most people
LIKE WORK; it is as natural as play or rest.
- Most people
NATURALLY WORK TOWARD GOALS to which he or she is committed.
- The depth of
a person’s commitment to goals depends on the perceived REWARDS
for achieving them.
- Under certain
conditions, most people not only accept but SEEKS RESPONSIBILITY.
- People are
capable of using a high degree of IMAGINATION, CREATIVITY,
and CLEVERNESS to solve problems.
- In industry,
the average person’s INTELLECTUAL POTENTIAL IS ONLY PARTIALLY
REALIZED.
- People are
MOTIVATED BY A VARIETY OF REWARDS. Each worker is stimulated by
a reward unique to that worker (time off, money, recognition,
etc.)
Theory Y
emphasizes a relaxed managerial atmosphere in which workers are free
to set objectives and be flexible.
EMPOWERMENT
is a key technique in meeting these objectives. To be a real
motivator, empowerment requires management to:
- Find out what
people think the problems in the organization are.
- Let them
design the solutions.
- Get out of
the way and let them put those solutions into action.
The trend in
many U.S. businesses is toward Theory Y management.
OUCHI’S THEORY
Z.
- Another reason
for a more flexible managerial style is to meet competition from foreign
firms.
- In the 1980s
WILLIAM OUCHI researched how corporations in Japan are run
differently from U.S. companies.
- The Japanese
management approach, called TYPE J, involved:
- Lifetime
employment.
- Consensual
decision making.
- Collective
responsibility for the outcomes of decisions.
- Slow
evaluation and promotion.
- Implied
control mechanisms.
-
Nonspecialized career paths.
- Holistic
concern for employees.
- The American
management approach, called TYPE A, involved:
- Short-term
employment.
- Individual
decision making.
- Individual
responsibility for the outcomes of decisions.
- Rapid
evaluation and promotion.
- Explicit
control mechanism.
- Specialized
career paths.
- Segmented
concern for employees.
- Type J firms
are based on the culture of Japan; Type A firms are based on the
culture of America.
- Ouchi realized
that American managers could not be expected to accept a concept based
on another culture.
- Ouchi
recommended a hybrid of the two approaches, THEORY Z.
- Long-term
employment.
- Collective
decision making.
- Individual
responsibility for the outcome of decisions.
- Slow
evaluation and promotion.
- Moderately
specialized career path.
- Holistic
concern for employees.
- Today economic
changes are forcing Japanese managers to reevaluate their management
styles.
- Today there is
a realization that Japanese firms need to become more efficient.
- Some Japanese
managers are changing the way they do business.
- Many managers
think that conformity has hurt Japanese business.
Many managers
think that conformity has hurt Japanese business.
THEORIES X, Y,
AND Y are CONCERNED WITH MANAGEMENT STYLES.
- Another
theory looks at what managers can do with the job itself to motivate
employees.
- FREDERICK
HERZBERG’S work is CONCERNED IS WITH THE CONTENT OF WORK
rather than style of management.
Frederick
HERZBERG surveyed workers to find out how they RANK JOB-RELATED
FACTORS. The results were:
- Sense of
achievement.
- Earned
recognition.
- Interest in
the work itself.
- Opportunity
for growth.
- Opportunity
for advancement.
- Importance of
responsibility.
- Peer and
group relationships.
- Pay.
- Supervisor’s
fairness.
- Company
policies and rules.
- Status.
- Job security.
- Supervisor’s
friendliness.
- Working
conditions.
Herzberg noted
that the HIGHEST RANKING FACTORS DEALT WITH JOB CONTENT.
- He referred
to these as MOTIVATORS since they gave employees a great deal
of satisfaction.
- They include
the work itself, achievement, and responsibility.
The OTHER
FACTORS had to do with JOB
ENVIRONMENT.
- They could
CAUSE DISSATISFACTION If them were missing but NOT
NECESSARILY MOTIVATION if they increased.
- These so
called HYGIENE FACTORS
include
working conditions and salary.
APPLYING
HERZBERG’S THEORIES
- The text
offers several current examples of Herzberg’s theories in action,
including Kingston Technology and Sunnen Products.
- These firms
believe that the best motivator for some employees is a simple
"Thanks, I really appreciate what you’re doing."
- Further
surveys support his finding that the number one motivator is not
money, but a sense of achievement and recognition.
- One study
identified lack of enough praise and recognition as the primary
reason employees leave their job.
- There is a
good deal of similarity in Maslow’s hierarchy and Herzberg’s
two-factor theory.
JOB ENRICHMENT.
- JOB ENRICHMENT
is a motivational strategy that emphasizes motivating the worker through
the job itself.
- The FIVE
CHARACTERISTICS of work believed to be IMPORTANT IN AFFECTING
MOTIVATION AND PERFORMANCE are:
- SKILL
VARIETY, the extent to which a job demands different skills of the
person.
- TASK
IDENTITY, the degree to which the job requires doing a task with a
visible outcome from beginning to end.
- TASK
SIGNIFICANCE, the degree to which the job has a substantial impact
on the lives of others in the company.
- AUTONOMY,
the degree of freedom, independence, and discretion in scheduling work
and determining procedures.
- FEEDBACK,
the amount of direct, clear information received about job
performance.
- The text uses the
examples of Herb Kelleher of Southwest Airlines, and Roger Sant if AES.
OTHER JOB
DESIGNS
- JOB
SIMPLIFICATION produces task efficiency by breaking down the job
into simple steps, sometimes necessary with people learning new
skills.
- JOB
ENLARGEMENT combines a series of tasks into one assignment that is
more challenging and motivating.
- JOB ROTATION
makes work more interesting by moving employees from one job to
another
GOAL-SETTING
THEORY AND MANAGEMENT BY OBJECTIVES.
- GOAL-SETTING
THEORY is based on setting specific, attainable goals.
- This will lead
to high motivation and performance if the goals are accepted,
accompanied by feedback, and facilitated by organizational conditions.
- Peter Drucker
developed such a system in the 1960s called MANAGEMENT BY
OBJECTIVES (MBO.)
MANAGEMENT BY
OBJECTIVES (MBO) is an example of goal-setting.
- Management by
Objectives was developed to HELP EMPLOYEES MOTIVATE THEMSELVES.
- MBO is a
system of goal setting and implementation that involves a cycle of
discussion, review, and evaluation of objectives among all levels of
management and employees.
- There are six
steps in the MBO process.
- Some critics
see MBO as being out of date and inconsistent with contemporary
management thought.
- Almost one-half
of firms surveyed, however use some form of MBO.
Management by
objectives is most effective in relatively stable situations.
- It is important
to understand the difference between helping and coaching subordinates
because helping tends to make subordinates weak and dependent while
coaching makes them feel capable and part of the team.
- HELPING
is working with the subordinate, even doing part of the work if
necessary.
- COACHING
means acting as a resource—teaching guiding, recommending—but not
helping by doing the task.
- Problems can
arise when management uses MBO as a strategy for FORCING
managers to commit to goals that are not mutually agreed upon.
MEETING EMPLOYEE
EXPECTATIONS: EXPECTANCY THEORY.
- According to
VICTOR VROOM’s EXPECTANCY THEORY, employee expectations can affect
an individual’s motivation.
- The amount of
effort employees exert on a specific task depends on their
expectations of the outcome.
- Vroom contends
that employees ask three questions before committing maximum effort to
a task:
- Can I
accomplish the task?
- If I do
accomplish it, what’s my reward?
- Is the reward
worth the effort?
- Expectation
varies from individual to individual.
- FIVE STEPS TO
IMPROVE EMPLOYEE PERFORMANCE:
- Determine what
rewards are valued by employees.
- Determine the
employee’s desired performance standard.
- Ensure
performance standards are attainable.
- Guarantee
rewards are tied to performance.
- Be certain
rewards are considered adequate.
TREATING
EMPLOYEES FAIRLY: EQUITY THEORY.
- The basic
principle of EQUITY THEORY is that workers try to maintain equity
between inputs and outputs compared to people in similar positions.
- When workers do
perceive inequity, they will try to reestablish equitable exchanges.
- They can reduce
or increase their efforts or rationalize the situation.
- In the
workplace, inequity leads to lower productivity leads to lower
productivity, reduced quality, increased absenteeism, and voluntary
resignation.
- Equity judgements
are based on perceptions, and are therefore subject to errors in
perception.
- Organizations
can try to deal with this by keeping salaries secret.
- However, the
best remedy, in general, is clear and frequent communication.
BUILDING
TEAMWORK THROUGH OPEN COMMUNICATION.
Explain how open
communication builds teamwork, and describe how managers are likely to
motivate teams in the future.
- Companies with
highly motivated workforces usually have open communication systems and
self-managed teams.
- Communication
must flow freely when teams are empowered to make decisions.
- Also, most
learning happens at the peer level.
- Empowerment
works when people share their knowledge with their peers.
- PROCEDURES FOR
ENCOURAGING OPEN COMMUNICATION INCLUDE:
- Create an
organizational culture that rewards listening.
- Train
supervisors and managers to listen.
- Remove barriers
to open communication.
- Actively
undertake efforts to facilitate communication.
- APPLYING OPEN
COMMUNICATION IN SELF-MANAGED TEAMS.
- The text offers
several examples of communication among members of self-managed teams
in such organizations as FORD MOTOR COMPANY.
- For companies
to implement such groups, managers must RE-INVENT WORK.
- CHANGING
ORGANIZATIONS IS NOT EASY.
- MANY
MANAGERS WERE TRAINED UNDER A DIFFERENT SYSTEM.
- Many are used
to telling people what to do rather than consulting them.
- It is
difficult for such managers to change.
- Employees often
have a difficult time changing as well, and some have trouble getting
involved in participative management.
- A MODEL FOR
THE FUTURE: EMPLOYEE EMPOWERMENT.
- The text tells
the story of MILLER BREWING COMPANY and MARY KAY COSMETICS
as an example of a company that successfully created an efficient and
effective team.
- Understanding
what motivates employees is the key to success in goods-producing
companies such as MILLER BREWING COMPANY and service-based
firms such as MARK KAY COSMETICS.
- The lessons
learned from these companies include:
- The future
growth of industry depends on a motivated, productive work force.
- Motivation is
largely internally generated by workers themselves.
- The first step
in any motivational program is to establish open communications.
MOTIVATION IN THE FUTURE
- Employees are not
alike—different employees respond to different managerial and
motivational styles.
- Tomorrow’s
managers will not be able to use any one formula for all employees.
- They will need to
work with each employee as an individual and fit the motivational effort
to that individual.
- Different
cultures experience motivational approaches differently.
- Cultural
differences also apply to generations:
- Baby boomers
(born between 1946 and 1964) experienced economic prosperity and
optimism about the future.
- Generation X
(born between 1965 and 1980) were raised with dual-career families and
insecurity about a life-long job.
- Boomer managers
need to be flexible with Gen X employees.
- Gen Xers focus
on career security, not job security, and are willing to change jobs
to do it.
- Gen Xers focus on
career security, not job security, and are willing to change jobs to do
it.
- Managers need to
give workers what they need to do a good job—the right tools, the right
information, and the right amount of cooperation.
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