BSC 1010C
General Biology I
Dr.
Graeme Lindbeck
glindbeck@valenciacollege.edu
The Chromosomal Basis of Inheritance
Outline
- Mendelian inheritance has its physical basis in the behavior of chromosomes during sexual life cycles
- Morgan traced a gene to a specific chromosome
- Linked genes tend to be inherited together because they are located on the same chromosome
- Independent assortment of chromosomes and crossing over cause genetic recombination
- The Recombination of Unlinked Genes: Independent Assortment of Chromosomes
- The Recombination of Linked Genes: Crossing Over
- Geneticists can use recombination data to map a chromosome's genetic loci
- The chromosomal basis of sex produces unique patterns of inheritance
- The Chromosomal Basis of Sex in Humans
- Sex-Linked Disorders in Humans
- X-Inactivation in Females
- Alterations of chromosome number or structure cause some genetic disorders
- Alterations of Chromosome Number: Aneuploidy and Polyploidy
- Alterations of Chromosome Structure
- Human Disorders Due to Chromosomal Alterations
- The phenotypic effects of some genes depend on whether they were inherited from the mother or father
- Genomic Imprinting
- Fragile-X and Triplet Repeats
- Extranuclear genes exhibit a non-mendelian pattern of inheritance
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Genetics | Cytology |
1860's: Mendel proposed that discrete inherited
factors segregate and assort independently during
gamete formation |
|
| 1875: Cytologists worked out process of mitosis |
| 1890: Cytologists worked but process of meiosis |
1900: Three botanists (Correns, de Vries and
von Seysenegg) independently rediscovered Mendel's
principles of segregation and independent assortment |
|
1902: Cytology and genetics converged as Walter Sutton, Theodor Boveri and others noticed parallels between the behavior of Mendel's factors and the behavior of chromosomes. For example: |
- Chromosomes and genes are both paired in diploid cells.
- Homologous chromosomes separate and allele pairs segregate during meiosis.
- Fertilization restores the paired condition for both chromosomes and genes.
Based upon these observations, biologists developed the chromosome theory of inheritance. According to this theory:
- Mendelian factors or genes are located on chromosomes.
- It is the chromosomes that segregate and independently assort.
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Thomas Hunt Morgan from Columbia University performed experiments in the early 1900's which provided convincing evidence that Mendel's inheritable factors are located on chromosomes.
Morgan selected the fruit fly, Drosophila melanogaster, as the experimental organism because these flies:
- Are easily cultured in the laboratory.
- Are prolific breeders.
- Have a short generation time.
- Have only four pairs of chromosomes which are easily seen with a microscope.
There are three pairs of autosomes (II, III and IV) and one pair of sex chromosomes. Females have two X chromosomes, and males have one X and one Y chromosome.
- A Note on Genetic Symbols
Morgan and his colleagues used genetic symbols that are now convention. For a particular character:
- A gene's symbol is based on the first mutant, non-wild type discovered.
ÞIf the mutant is recessive, the first letter is lowercase. (e.g. w = white eye allele in Drosophila.)
ÞIf the mutant is dominant, the first letter is capitalized. (e.g. Cy = "curly" allele in Drosophila that causes abnormal, curled wings.)
- Wild-type trait is designated by a superscript +. (e.g. Cy+ = allele for normal, straight wings.)
Wild type = Normal or most frequently observed phenotype.
Mutant phenotypes = Phenotypes that are alternatives to the wild type and which are due to mutations in the wild-type gene.
- Discovery of a Sex-Linked Gene
After a year of breeding Drosophila to find variant phenotypes, Morgan discovered a single male fly with white eyes instead of the wild-type red. Morgan mated this mutant white-eyed male with a red-eyed female. The cross is outlined below.
w = white-eye allele
|
Drosophila geneticists symbolize a recessive mutant allele with one or more lower case letters. The corresponding wild-type allele has a superscript plus sign. |
w+ = red-eye or wild- type allele |
P generation: |
w+ w+ red-eyed female |
x |
w white-eyed male |
F1 generation: |
w+ w red-eyed female |
x |
w red-eyed male |
The fact that all the F1 progeny had red eyes suggested that the wild-type allele was dominant over the mutant allele.
F2 generation: |
w+ w+ red-eyed female |
w w+ red-eyed female |
w+ w red-eyed male |
w white-eyed male |
Morgan deduced that eye color is linked to sex and that the gene for eye color is located only on the X chromosome. Premises for his conclusions were:
- If eye color is located only on the X chromosome, then females (XX) carry two copies of the gene, while males (XY) have only one.
- Since the mutant allele is recessive, a white-eyed female must have that allele on both X chromosomes which was impossible for F2 females in Morgan's experiment.
- A white-eyed male has no wild-type allele to mask the recessive mutant allele, so a single copy of the mutant allele confers white eyes.
Sex-linked genes = Genes located on sex chromosomes. The term is commonly applied only to genes on the X chromosome.
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Genes located on the same chromosome tend to be linked in inheritance and do
not assort independently.
Linked genes = Genes that are located on the same chromosome and that
tend to be inherited together.
- Linked genes do not assort independently, because they are on the same chromosome and move together through meiosis and fertilization.
- Since independent assortment does not occur, a dihybrid cross following two linked genes will not produce an F2 phenotypic ratio of 9:3:3: 1.
T.H. Morgan and his students performed a dihybrid testcross between flies with
autosomal recessive mutant alleles for black bodies and vestigial wings and
wild-type flies heterozygous for both traits. (A more detailed description follows
in a later section.)
b = black body
b+ = gray body |
vg = vestigial wings
vg+ = wild-type wings |
b+bvg+vg
gray, normal wings |
x |
bbvgvg
black, vestigial wings |
- Resulting phenotypes of the progeny did not occur in the expected 1:1:1:1 ratio for a dihybrid testcross.
- A disproportionately large number of flies had the phenotypes of the parents: gray with normal wings and black with vestigial wings.
- Morgan proposed that these unusual ratios were due to linkage. The genes for body color and wing size are on the same chromosome and are usually thus inherited together.
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Genetic recombination = The production of offspring with new combinations of traits different from those combinations found in the parents; results from the events of meiosis and random fertilization.
- The Recombination of Unlinked Genes: Independent Assortment of Chromosomes
Mendel discovered that some offspring from dihybrid crosses have phenotypes
unlike either parent. An example is the following test cross between pea plants:
YY, Yy = yellow seeds
yy = green seeds |
RR, Rr = round seeds
rr = wrinkled seeds |
P generation: |
YyRr
yellow round |
x |
yyrr
green wrinkled |
Testcross progeny: |
¼ YyRr
yellow, round |
¼ yyrr
green, wrinkled |
Parental types (50%) |
¼ yyRr
green, round |
¼ Yyrr
yellow, wrinkled |
Recombinant types (50%) |
Parental types = Progeny that have the same phenotype as one or
the other of the parents.
Recombinants = Progeny whose phenotypes differ from either parent.
In this cross, seed shape and seed color are unlinked.
- One-fourth of the progeny have round yellow seeds, and one fourth have
wrinkled green seeds. Therefore, one-half of the progeny are parental
types.
- The remaining half of the progeny are recombinants. One fourth
are round green and one fourth are wrinkled yellow - phenotypes not found
in either parent.
- When half the progeny are recombinants, there is a 50% frequency of recombination.
- A 50% frequency of recombination usually indicates that the two genes
are on different chromosomes, because it is the expected result if the two
genes assort randomly.
- The genes for seed shape and seed color assort independently of one another
because they are located on different chromosomes which randomly align during
metaphase of meiosis I.
- The Recombination of Linked Genes: Crossing Over
If genes are totally linked, some possible phenotypic combinations should
not appear. Sometimes, however, the unexpected recombinant phenotypes do appear.
As described earlier, T.H. Morgan and his students performed the following
dihybrid testcross between flies with autosomal recessive mutant alleles for
black bodies and vestigial wings and wild-type flies heterozygous for both
traits.
b = black body
vg = vestigial wings |
b+ = gray body
vg+ = wild-type wings |
b+bvg+vg
gray, normal wings |
x |
bbvgvg
black, vestigial wings |
Phenotypes |
Genotypes |
Expected results if genes are unlinked |
Expected results if genes are totally linked |
Actual results |
Black body, normal wings |
bvg+/bvg |
575 |
- |
206 |
Gray body, normal wings |
b+vg+/bvg |
575 |
1150 |
965 |
Black body, vestigial wings |
bvg/bvg |
575 |
1150 |
944 |
Gray body, vestigial wings |
bb+vg/bvg |
575 |
- |
185 |
Recombination Frequency = (391 recombinants/ 2300 total offspring) x 100
= 17%
Morgan's results from this dihybrid testcross showed that the two genes were
neither unlinked nor totally linked.
- If wing type and body color genes were unlinked, they would assort independently,
and the progeny would show a 1: 1: 1: 1 ratio of all possible phenotypic
combinations.
- If the genes were completely linked, expected results from the testcross
would be a 1:1 phenotypic ratio of parental types only.
- Morgan's testcross did not produce results consistent with unlinkage or
total linkage. The high proportion of parental phenotypes suggested linkage
between the two genes.
- Since 17% of the progeny were recombinants, the linkage must be incomplete.
Morgan proposed that there must be some mechanism that occasionally breaks
the linkage between the two genes.
- It is now known that crossing over during meiosis accounts for
the recombination of linked genes. The exchange of parts between homologous
chromosomes breaks linkages in parental chromosomes and forms recombinants
with new allelic combinations.
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Scientists used recombination frequencies between genes to map the sequence of linked genes on particular chromosomes.
Morgan's Drosophila studies showed that some genes are linked more tightly than others.
- For example, the recombination frequency between the b and vg loci is about 17%.
- The recombination frequency is only 9% between b and cn, a third locus on the same chromosome. (The cinnabar gene, cn, for eye color has a recessive allele causing "cinnabar eyes.")
A.H. Sturtevant, one of Morgan's students, assumed that if crossing over occurs randomly, the probability of crossing over between two genes is directly proportional to the distance between them.
- Sturtevant used recombination frequencies between genes to assign them a linear position on a chromosome map.
- He defined one map unit as 1% recombination frequency. (Map units are now called centimorgans, in honor of Morgan.)
Using crossover data, a map may be constructed as follows:
Loci |
Recombination Frequency |
Approximate Map Units |
b vg |
17.0% |
18.5 |
cn b |
9.0% |
9.0 |
cn vg |
9.5% |
9.5 |
- Establish the relative distance between those genes farthest apart or with the highest recombination frequency.
b<-------------------->vg
17 |
- Determine the recombination frequency between the third gene (cn) and the first (b).
cn<------------------->b 9
|
- Consider the two possible placements of the third gene:
9 | | |
cn<-------------------> | b | <------------------->vg |
| | 17 |
9 | | |
b<-------------------> | cn | <------------------->vg |
| 17 | |
- Determine the recombination frequency between the third gene (cn) and the second (vg) to eliminate the incorrect sequence.
9 |
|
9.5 |
b<-------------------> |
cn |
<------------------->vg |
|
17 |
|
So, the correct sequence is b-cn-vg.
Note that there are actually 18.5 map units between b and vg.
This is higher than that predicted from the recombination frequency of 17.0%.
Because b and vg are relatively far apart, double crossovers
occur between these loci and cancel each other out, leading us to underestimate
the actual map distance.
If linked genes are so far apart on a chromosome that the recombination
frequency is 50%, they are indistinguishable from unlinked genes that assort
independently.
Sturtevant and his coworkers extended this method to map other Drosophila
genes in linear arrays.
- The crossover data allowed them to cluster the known mutations into four
major linkage groups.
- Since Drosophila has four sets of chromosomes, this clustering
of genes into four linkage groups was further evidence that genes are on
chromosomes.
Maps based on crossover data only give information about the relative position
of linked genes on a chromosome. Another technique, cytological mapping
pinpoints the actual location of genes and the real distance between them.
- Cytological mapping involves screening offspring for mutant phenotypes
and associating mutants with chromosomal defects visible by direct microscopic
examination.
- The location of loci derived from maps based on crossover data differs
from the spacing derived from cytological mapping, because the frequency
of crossing over is not the same for all chromosomal regions.
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In most species, sex is determined by the presence or absence of special
chromosomes. As a result of meiotic segregation, each gamete has one sex chromosome
to contribute at fertilization.
Heterogametic sex = The sex that produces two kinds of gametes and
determines the sex of the offspring.
Homogametic sex = The sex that produces one kind of gamete.
- The Chromosomal Basis of Sex in Humans
Mammals, including humans, have an X-Y mechanism that determines
sex at fertilization.
- There are two chromosomes, X and Y. Each gamete has one
sex chromosome, so when sperm cell and ovum unite at fertilization, the
zygote receives one of two possible combinations: XX or XY.
- Males are the heterogametic sex (XY). Half the sperm cells contain
an X chromosome, while the other half contain a Y chromosome.
- Females are the homogametic sex (XX); all ova carry an X
chromosome.
Whether an embryo develops into a male or female depends upon the presence
of a Y chromosome.
- A British research team has identified a single gene, Sry (sex-determining
region), on the Y chromosome that is responsible for triggering
the complex series of events that lead to normal testicular development.
Sry probably codes for a protein that regulates other genes.
- Sex-Linked Disorders in Humans
Some genes on sex chromosomes play a role in sex determination, but these
chromosomes also contain genes for other traits.
In humans, the term sex-linked traits usually refers to X-linked
traits.
- The human X-chromosome is much larger than the Y. Thus,
there are more X-linked than Y-linked traits.
- Most X-linked genes have no homologous loci on the Y chromosome.
- Most genes on the Y chromosome not only have no X counterparts,
but they encode traits found only in males (e.g. testis-determining factor).
- Examples of sex-linked traits in humans are color blindness, Duchenne
muscular dystrophy and hemophilia.
Fathers pass X-linked alleles to only and all of their daughters.
- Males receive their X chromosome only from their mothers.
- Fathers cannot, therefore, pass sex-linked traits to their sons.
Mothers can pass sex-linked alleles to both sons and daughters.
- Females receive two X chromosomes, one from each parent.
- Mothers pass on one X chromosome (either maternal or paternal
homologue) to every daughter and son.
If a sex-linked trait is due to a recessive allele, a female will express
the trait only if she is homozygous.
- Females have two X chromosomes, therefore they can be either
homozygous or heterozygous for sex-linked alleles.
- There are fewer females with sex-linked disorders than males, because
even if they have one recessive allele, the other dominant alelle is the
one that is expressed. A female that is heterozygous for the trait can
be carrier, but not show the recessive trait herself.
- A carrier that mates with a normal male will pass the mutation to half
her sons and half her daughters.
- If a carrier mates with a male who has the trait, there is a 50% chance
that each child born to them will have the trait, regardless of sex.
Because males have only one X-linked locus, any male receiving
a mutant allele from his mother will express the trait.
- Far more males than females have sex-linked disorders.
- Males are said to be hemizygous.
Hemizygous = A condition where only one copy of a gene is present
in a diploid organism.
- X-Inactivation in Females
How does an organism compensate for the fact that some individuals have
a double dosage of sex-linked genes while others have only one?
In female mammals, most diploid cells have only one fully functional X
chromosome.
- The explanation for this process is known as the Lyon hypothesis,
proposed by the British geneticist Mary F. Lyon.
- In females, each of the embryonic cells inactivates one of the two X
chromosomes.
- The inactive X chromosome contracts into a dense object called
a Barr body.
Barr body = Inside the nuclear envelope, a densely staining object
that is an inactivated X chromosome in female mammalian cells.
- Most Barr body genes are not expressed.
- Are reactivated in gonadal cells that undergo meiosis to form gametes.
Female mammals are a mosaic of two types of cells - those with
an active maternal X and those with an active paternal X.
- Which of the two X's will be inactivated is determined randomly
in embryonic cells.
- After an X is inactivated, all mitotic descendants will have
the same inactive X.
- As a consequence, if a female is heterozygous for a sex-linked trait,
about half of her cells will express one allele and the other cells well
express the alternate allele.
- Examples of this type of mosaicism are coloration in calico cats and
normal sweat gland development in humans.
X chromosome inactivation is associated with DNA methylation.
- Methyl groups (-CH3) attach to cytosine, one of DNA's nitrogenous
bases.
- Barr bodies are highly methylated compared to actively transcribed DNA.
What determines which of the two X chromosomes will be methylated?
- A recently discovered gene, XIST is active only on the
Barr body.
- The product of the XIST gene, X-inactive specific transcript,
is an RNA that interacts with the X chromosome and maintains its
inactivation.
Many questions are yet to be answered.
- How does XIST initiate X-inactivation?
- What determines which X chromosome in each of a female's cells
will have an active XIST gene and become a Barr body?
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Meiotic errors and mutagens can cause major chromosomal changes such as
altered chromosome numbers or altered chromosomal structure.
- Alterations of Chromosome Number: Aneuploidy and Polyploidy
Nondisjunction = Meiotic or mitotic error during which certain
homologous chromosomes or sister chromatids fail to separate.
- Meiotic nondisjunction:
ÞMay occur during Meiosis I so that a homologous
pair does not separate.
ÞMay occur during Meiosis II when sister
chromatids do not separate.
ÞResults in one gamete receiving two of
the same type of chromosome and another gamete receiving no copy. The
remaining chromosomes may be distributed normally.
- Mitotic nondisjunction:
ÞAlso results in abnormal number of certain
chromosomes.
ÞIf it occurs in embryonic cells, mitotic
division passes this abnormal chromosome number to a large number of cells,
and can thus have a large effect.
Aneuploidy = Condition of having an abnormal number of certain
chromosomes.
- Aneuploid offspring may result if a normal gamete unites with an aberrant
one produced as a result of nondisjunction.
- An aneuploid cell that has a chromosome in triplicate is said to be
trisomic for that chromosome.
- An aneuploid with a missing chromosome is said to be monosomic
for that chromosome.
- When an aneuploid zygote divides by mitosis, it transmits the chromosomal
anomaly to all subsequent embryonic cells.
- Abnormal gene dosage in aneuploids causes characteristic symptoms in
survivors. An example is Down's syndrome which results from trisomy of
chromosome 21.
Polyploidy = A chromosome number that is more than two complete
chromosome sets.
- Triploidy is a polyploid chromosome number with three haploid
chromosome sets (3n).
- Tetraploidy is polyploidy with four haploid chromosome sets (4n).
- Triploids may be produced by fertilization of an abnormal diploid egg
produced by nondisjunction of all chromosomes.
- Tetraploidy may result if a diploid zygote undergoes mitosis without
cytokinesis. Subsequent normal mitosis would produce a 4n embryo.
- Polyploidy is common in plants and important in plant evolution.
- Polyploids occur rarely among animals, and they are more normal in appearance
than aneuploids. Mosaic polyploids, with only patches of polyploid cells,
are more common than complete polyploid animals.
- Alterations of Chromosome Structure
Chromosome breakage can alter chromosome structure in four ways:
- Chromosomes which lose a fragment lacking a centromere will have a deficiency
or deletion.
- Fragments without centromeres are usually lost when the cell divides,
or they may:
ÞJoin to a homologous chromosome producing
a duplication.
ÞJoin to a nonhomologous chromosome(translocation).
ÞReattach to the original chromosome in
reverse order (inversion).
Crossing-over error is another source of deletions and duplications.
- Crossovers are normally reciprocal, but sometimes one sister chromatid
gives up more genes than it receives in an unequal crossover.
- A nonreciprocal crossover results in one chromosome with a deletion
and one chromosome with a duplication.
Alterations of chromosome structure, can have various effects:
- Homozygous deletions, including a single X in a male, are usually
lethal.
- Duplications and translocations tend to have deleterious effects.
- Even if all genes are present in normal dosages, reciprocal translocations
between nonhomologous chromosomes and inversions can alter the phenotype
because of subtle position effects.
Position effect = Influence on a gene's expression because of its
location among neighboring genes.
- Human Disorders Due to Chromosomal Alterations
Chromosomal alterations are associated with some serious human disorders.
Aneuploidy, resulting from meiotic nondisjunction during gamete formation,
usually prevents normal embryonic development and often results in spontaneous
abortion.
- Some types of aneuploidy cause less severe problems, and aneuploid individuals
may survive to birth and beyond with a set of characteristic symptoms
or syndrome.
- Aneuploid conditions can be diagnosed before birth by fetal testing.
Down syndrome, an aneuploid condition, affects 1 out of 700 U.S.
children.
- Is usually the result of trisomy 21.
- Includes characteristic facial features, short stature, heart defects,
mental retardation, susceptibility to respiratory infections, and a proneness
to developing leukemia and Alzheimer's disease.
- Though most are sexually underdeveloped and sterile, a few women with
Down syndrome have had children.
- The incidence of Down syndrome offspring correlates with matemal age.
ÞMay be related to the long time lag between
the first meiotic division during the mother's fetal life and the completion
of meiosis at ovulation.
ÞMay be that older women have less chance
of miscarrying a trisomic embryo.
Other rarer disorders caused by autosomal aneuploidy are:
- Patau syndrome (trisomy 13)
- Edwards syndrome (trisomy 18).
Sex chromosome aneuploidies result in less severe conditions than those
from autosomal aneuploidies. This may be because:
- The Y chromosome carries few genes.
- Copies of the X chromosome become inactivated as Barr bodies.
The basis of sex determination in humans is illustrated by sex chromosome
aneuploidies.
- A single Y chromosome is sufficient to produce maleness.
- The absence of Y is required for femaleness.
Examples of sex chromosome aneuploidy in males are:
Klinefelter Syndrome
- Genotype: Usually XXY, but may be associated with XXYY, XXXY,
XXXXY, XXXXXY
- Phenotype: Male sex organs with abnormally small testes; sterile; feminine
body contours and perhaps breast enlargement; usually of normal intelligence.
Extra Y
- Genotype: XYY.
- Phenotype: Normal male; usually taller than average; normal intelligence
and fertility.
Abnormalities of sex chromosome number in females include:
Triple-X Syndrome
- Genotype: XXX.
- Phenotype: Usually fertile; can show a normal phenotype.
Turner Syndrome
- Genotype: XO (only known viable human monosomy).
- Phenotype: Short stature; at puberty, secondary sexual characteristics
fail to develop; internal sex organs do not mature; sterile.
Structural chromosomal alterations such as deletions and translocations
can also cause human disorders.
- Deletions in human chromosomes cause severe defects even in the heterozygous
state. For example,
ÞCri du chat syndrome is caused
by a deletion on chromosome S. Symptoms are mental retardation, a small
head with unusual facial features and a cry that sounds like a mewing
cat.
- Translocations associated with human disorders include:
ÞCertain cancers such as chronic myelogenous
leukemia (CML). A portion of chromosome 22 switches places with
a small fragment from chromosome 9.
- Some cases of Down syndrome. A third chromosome 21 translocates to chromosome
15, resulting in two normal chromosomes 21 plus the translocation.
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VIII. The phenotypic effects of some genes depend on
whether they were inherited from the mother or father
- Genomic Imprinting
The expression of some traits may depend upon which parent contributes the
alleles for those traits.
- For example, two genetic disorders, Prader-Willi syndrome and
Angelman syndrome, are caused by the same deletion on chromosome
15. The symptoms differ depending upon whether the gene was inherited
from the mother or from the father.
- Prader-Willi syndrome is caused by a deletion from the paternal
version of chromosome 15. The syndrome is characterized by mental retardation,
obesity, short stature, and unusually small hands and feet.
- Angelman syndrome is caused by a deletion from the maternal version
of chromosome 15. This syndrome is characterized by uncontrollable spontaneous
laughter, jerky movements, and other motor and mental symptoms.
- The Prader-Willi/Angelman syndromes imply that the deleted genes normally
behave differently in offspring, depending on whether they belong to the
maternal or the paternal homologue.
- In other words, homologous chromosomes inherited from males and females
are somehow differently imprinted, which causes them to be functionally
different in the offspring.
Genomic imprinting = Process that induces intrinsic changes in
chromosomes inherited from males and females; causes certain genes to be
differently expressed in the offspring depending upon whether the alleles
were inherited from the ovum or from the sperm cell.
- According to this hypothesis, certain genes are imprinted in some way
each generation, and the imprint is different depending on whether the
genes reside in females or in males.
- The same alleles may have different effects on offspring depending on
whether they are inherited from the mother or the father.
- In the new generation, both maternal and paternal imprints can be reversed
in gamete-producing cells, and all the chromosomes are re-coded according
to the sex of the individual in which they now reside.
- DNA methylation may be one mechanism for genomic imprinting.
- Fragile-X and Triplet Repeats
Triplet repeat = Sections of DNA where a specific triplet of nucleotides
is repeated many times.
- Occur normally in many places within the human genome.
- Progressive addition of triplet repeats can lead to genetic disorders
such as Fragile-X syndrome and Huntington's disease.
Affecting about one in every 1500 males and one in every 2500 females,
Fragile-X syndrome is the most common genetic cause of mental retardation.
- The "fragile X" is an abnormal X chromosome, the tip of
which hangs on the rest of the chromosome by a thin DNA thread. This altered
region in fragile-X, as well as the comparable region in normal
X chromosomes, contains triplet repeats.
- The triplet repeat, CGG (cytosine, guanine, guanine), is repeated up
to 50 times on one tip of a normal X chromosome, but is repeated
more than 200 times in a fragile X chromosome.
- Abnormal addition of triplet repeats occurs incrementally over generations,
so there is a "prefragile-X" condition between 50 to 200 CGG repeats;
these individuals are phenotypically normal. Eventually, as enough repeats
accrue from one gene ration to the next, fragile-X syndrome appears.
Fragile-X syndrome's complex expression may be a consequence
of matemal genomic imprinting.
- The syndrome is more likely to appear if the abnormal X chromosome
is inherited from the mother rather than the father, and pre-fragile X
chromosomes in ova producing cells are more likely to acquire new CGG
triplets than chromosomes in sperm producing cells.
- In the female parent, the site of triplet repeats on the X chromosome
is imprinted by DNA methylation. Excessive methylation may inactivate
one or more genes and prevent their normal expression offspring.
- Matemal imprinting explains why fragile-X disorder is more common
in males. Males (XY) inherit the fragile X chromosome only
from their mothers - maternally imprinted versions of the abnormal chromosome.
- Females can inherit the fragile X chromosome from either parent,
but only the matemal version is imprinted and causes expression of the
syndrome. Heterozygous carriers for this recessively inherited trait,
have partial protection from the normal X chromosome and are usually
only mildly retarded.
Huntington's disease is another example of how extended triplet
repeats and genomic imprinting can influence the expression of a human genetic
disorder.
- The Huntington's locus, near the tip of chromosome #4, has a CAG extended
triplet repeat.
- Genomic imprinting influences the expression of the gene. The triplet
repeat at the Huntington's locus is more likely to extend if the allele
is inherited from the father, rather than the mother.
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There are some exceptions to the chromosome theory of inheritance.
- Extranuclear genes are found in cytoplasmic organelles such as plastids
and mitochondria.
- These cytoplasmic genes are not inherited in Mendelian fashion, because
they are not distributed by segregating chromosomes during meiosis.
In plants, a zygote receives its plastids from the ovum, not from pollen.
Consequently, offspring receive only matemal cytoplasmic genes.
- Cytoplasmic genes in plants were first described by Karl Corens (1909)
when he noticed that plant coloration of an ornamental species was determined
by the seed bearing plants and not by the pollen producing plants.
- It is now known that maternal plastid genes control variegation of leaves.
In mammals, inheritance of mitochondrial DNA is also exclusively matemal.
- Since the ovum contributes most of the cytoplasm to the zygote, the mitochondria
are all matemal in origin.
Course Pages maintained by
Dr. Graeme Lindbeck
.